First, they notice that when the First Mate would ask the Captain for his orders, he never just barked them out. He always paused for a moment - and perhaps that is a lesson within itself - and gave himself just a bit of space.

Second, what the Captain then did was to follow a little well practiced drill that the crew all knew too well. He would be asked for the order. He would pause. He would step back, furl his brow as if in deep meditation, and then with his hand pick a little card out of his pocket no bigger than a folded A-6 size piece of paper. He would take a look briefly at both sides of the card, put it back into his pocket, and finally always issue exactly the right command in any situation, whatever the prevailing conditions.

Of course the crew reckoned that the little card was what made all the difference between their Master and other captains on other sea lanes. They all wondered what was on the card.

One day as the huge ship was coming into dock, perhaps a bit too smartly because of the wind and waves making for a strong current with a high tide, some of the dock hands were nervously eyeing one another wondering if they would have to jump out of the way. Meanwhile on the bridge all was serene and calm as usual. The First Mate turned to the Captain for his order. The Captain in turn did what he always did. He stood back. He furled his brow. He reached into his pocket only to discover the card was not where it was supposed to be.

He instantly realised it has been left in his other jacket pocket in his day room, so the First Mate was dispatched to collect the missing card. On his return, the Captain glanced quickly at both sides of the card. He then put it away safely, and then as always issued exactly the right command for the occasion.

Of course the First Mate in bringing the card from the Captain's Day Room could not resist taking a peak at the card himself. He was surprised to discover a mere four words carefully lettered. Two words were on one side of the card printed in radiant red. Two words were also as neatly printed on the other side in glowing green.

When pressed by his ship mates, the First Mate said he really did not see what all the fuss was about; however, being threatened with actual bodily harm, he said the card just had to do with reminding the Captains of his bearings. On the one side it read "Port - Left". On the other side clearly set out were the words: "Starboard - Right".

Christian Faith

We too need to check our bearings from time to time. To do so, it is salutary to recall the Great Commandments. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind … You shall love your neighbour as yourself. We are told everything else depends on these two injunctions.

They can be presented graphically in two dimensions. The vertical axis can indicate a low to high (all your heart … all your soul … all your mind) concern for God. The horizontal line can indicate a low to high concern for the neighbour.

This is a limited diagrammatic and static illustration of what is in fact a dynamic state of affairs. It is also more complicated, in that there is a third dimension directed toward a low or high esteem of self; however, for these purposes two dimensions is sufficient to suggest we experience varied concerns for God and people over time in different ways, There is no one perfect style.

Figure 1

In Figure 1. five basic aspects of our Christian Faith are shown. In the NW area there is a relatively low concern for the neighbour but a high concern for the Things of God. This is expressed either at the altar - the Body of Christ gathered to receive Him under the sacrament form of consecrated bread and wine - or from the pulpit in receiving and responding to the Word of God. Such a schema suggests that catholics and evangelicals are in some sense "neighbours" because they share a high concern for the divine.

In the SE portion of the Map, there is a relatively low concern for God as a numinous presence but a high concern for the People of God. Theologically, the notion of the incarnation - God with us - both informs and drives faith. The Matthew account of the Final Judgement is a classic text (Mt 25:31-46) supporting this position.

Such an incarnational view of Christian Faith reflects the view that God has no hands but our hands, no feet but ours, and no lips to speak but ours. In the Diocese of St. Edmundsbury and Ipswich this has been expressed as a slogan: It begins with me.

In the SW there is a rather low concern for the Things of God as well as the People of God; however, there is a strong desire that things are done decently and in order (I Cor 14:40). This is how the Apostle Paul wrote to the faithful at the Church in Corinth. There are many people who tend to specific chores in and around the church in a dutiful and devoted way. We could describe their dedication by acknowledging they undertake their task religiously. This expression of Christian Faith is seen in arranging flowers, cleaning, polishing, gardening, etc.

In the MIDLANDS there is not a distinct awareness of an emphasis, as there is for those located in the corners of the Map; however, there is a heightened awareness of the "pull" or tension to the other styles. For instance, when someone is on retreat concentrating on the Things of God, they might well think about some of the People of God back home, especially those who are In hospital. When travelling to the hospital to visit a sick soul, the same person might notice something in the church grounds that needs attention. The point is that the more one attempts to express one of the distinct styles, the more they are attracted to one of the others, and so forth.

In the NE both the vertical and horizontal dimensions are understood wholistically. There is a concern both for God and for the People of God. Explicit behaviour in one direction carries with it implicit behaviour in the other. The best example is Jesus himself, who would carry on a conversation with his Heavenly Father into the early hours of the morning and include the concerns of those he had met in the market place. Later in the day, he could find himself down at the well in the Market Place with the Samaritan woman who had a number of boyfriends and who in spite of her domestic difficulties could assure her of her Heavenly Father's love and care for her.

These five types suggest that one size does not fit all. Nor should this graphical representation be regarded as fixed for any one person. We all move around on the Christian Faith over the life of our spiritual journey. The point is that everyone can put themselves on the map and check their bearings as to where they find themselves.

Five Marks of Mission

Following the Lambeth Conference in 1998 some 70 million Anglicans around the world have been offered a simple standard against which to measure their efforts to live out their Christian lives. The five marks were not intended to be a selective "pick 'n mix", as the stop (period) came after the last one. They are all compatible with various areas of the Christian Faith Map, Figure 2. It can be used as a backdrop against which to appreciate their relationship one to another.

Proclaiming (Tell) the Good News in word and deed is a classic activity for Christians who’s Faith is driven by a high concern for the Things of God (NE). Responding (Tend) to human need in loving service in and through local communities is an appropriate action for those who feel a strong concern for the People of God (SE).

Transforming unjust structures of society would suit those who want things to be done decently and in order (SW). Safeguarding creation, as well as sustained and renewing the earth (Treasure) fits the Midlands approach to Christian Faith because there is an attempt to balance a number of interests. Nurture and teaching new believers is a holistic way to work out one's own salvation in fear and trembling (Phil 2:12).

There five mission emphases are more or less compatible with the five different Christian Faith styles; however, this should not be misconstrued so that for instance a person who is keen that things should be done decently and in order would not be interested in telling the Good News. He or she might well want to engage with such a mission emphasis, but they way in which it was delivered would undoubtedly be well structured and tidily presented.

Figure 2

Christian Stewardship

If "Mission" - however it is understood - is the fruit of evangelism, then resourcing Is the consequence of stewardship. Evangelism without stewardship is a disembodied joy, full of energy and spirit, but with no practical means of expressing Itself. Similarly, stewardship without evangelism is a soulless wonder, very efficient but with no real sense of direction or purpose.

Again, these can be "mapped" against the background of the five various approaches to Christian Faith. As a detailed example, three figures follow. They set out the motives, standards, and programmes associated with Christian Stewardship; however, the same sort of depiction could be developed for evangelism, and indeed a host of other church related activities, such as Confirmation preparation, Bible study, etc.

If a person has a high concern for the Things of God, he or she would no doubt want to respond to God's overflowing generosity in his or her life; however, if an individual felt strongly that things should be done decently and in order, then he or she would want to see a proper sharing of the work required, being very practical and realistic. If the People of God drove one's approach to Faith, any response would have to provide care for those in real need. Those with a wholistic style would want to contribute faithfully, whereas those attempting a life balance would give as much as they were able whenever they could.

Figure 3

In terms of levels of giving, again the mapping in Figure 4. helps us appreciate no one size fits all. For instance proportionate giving or tithing would best suit someone in the NW with a high concern for the Things of God. In the MIDLANDS a person attempting to keep a balance in his or her life might consider the General Synod of the Church of England's 50/50 standard based on 5% of take-home pay in and through God's local church.

In the SE an individual might find the so-called One Hour Principle useful by offering an hour a week in personal prayer, study, community service, and an hour's earnings, being 2½% of a forty hour work week. Both the SW and the NE base giving on more than fractions. In the NE it is a matter of total commitment (110+%), not just a contribution, that demands soul, life, and all (Isaac Watts 1674-1748). In the SW giving is related to value of and for money by relating giving to outcomes worthy of support.

Christian Faith, Motives for Giving, Standards of Giving, and Giving Programmes can all be seen in line with one another. For instance, when there is a relatively high concern for the Things of God (NW), proportionate giving including tithing is most appropriately emphasised in God's House during Sunday worship. There would be a strong biblical message with little if any reference on getting what one pays for. On the other hand, small (house) groups would provide a context for those with a high concern for the People of God (SE) to consider offering various hours a week in service, prayer, study, etc., and wage. There might also be a strong emphasis on time and talents - not in lieu of financial support but as a tangible way to help people in need.

People concerned that things are done decently and in order (SW) will respond to a direct marketing approach. A carefully prepared and personal series of letters stressing the importance of sharing the work and costs associated with the local church can be extremely effective. The Diocese of Southwark introduced The Responsibility Is Ours (“TRIO”) more than fifteen years ago, and it is still proving its worth, along with its successor Giving Enables Mission (“GEM”).

Figure 4

Figure 5

If there is a more wholistic (NE) Christian Faith style in a congregation, a large gathering - perhaps around a social occasion such as a supper, and proceeded by a parish conference - could well provide the context for a message that encouraged sacrifice as a key part of commitment. This thought would simply not be readily received throughout a mailing. If people were attempting to balance all their many commitments (MIDLANDS), the Church of England's recommended half tithe through the local church could be communicated through a customised programme incorporating features of the other four ways of delivering a stewardship message, and blending various elements based on a local survey of the predominant Christian Faith pattern.

In helping a congregation to respond realistically, regularly, and readily in their financial support of god's work in and through their church, it is important to "match" motives, standards, and programmes to the predominate Christian Faith pattern. For instance, an exhortation in a written letter (SW) to tithe (NW) has little chance of a positive response unless it is also put across in preaching. Similarly, if there is a requirement to pay the bills (SW), using the sermon to make an appeal with a display of pie charts and other financial information often proves counter productive, because church goers' expectation is to be inspired by their worship not to be given a commercial "pitch". Congruence between method and message optimises the possibilities for a successful conclusion to a stewardship programme, and it starts by being clear about the local Christian Faith pattern.

Cognitive styles and collaboration among Church of England Clergy

And they cast lots ... and the lot fell on Matthias (Acts 1:26)

Since the days of the early Church described in the New Testament the selection, training, and deployment for full time ordained ministry has become institutionalised in a way that appears to remove (divine) chance in favour of (human) choice -- at least in the Church of England now twenty centuries away from its origins. One criterion of choice applied is a capacity to relate and work with others, i.e., collaboration. Although Selection Conferences for ordination in the Church of England use three types of observed group work as an indicator of collaborative skill, when making clergy appointments it is generally assessed exclusively on the basis of interviews and references from colleagues.

It might seem that a selection/training/deployment approach based largely on personal observation and testimonies would be rather subjective and lack coherence; nevertheless, research suggests that in fact clergy in the Church of England - regardless of age or gender - tend to reflect a predominant personality type and cognitive style. In other words, there is a high degree of predictability that ordained people in the Church of England think in similar ways related to aspects of their work and behaviour in social situations.

Unfortunately, such homogeneity as to clergy type may be more appropriate in a traditional parochially based church than in an increasingly changing and collaborative one. One parson living in a parsonage serving a population from one parish church is very different from a multiple structure in which congregations are served by a collective of clergy who are expected to function corporately and in concert one with another.

In the Church of England there are some 16,000 churches organised into about 13,000 parishes serviced by approximately 8,700 "benefices" related to an individual ordained cleric. This means that there are many more pulpits/altars than active clergy, at just over 10,000. Of this number some 20% serve in an assistant capacity with other ordained colleagues. An additional 13% of clergy are deployed in what are referred to as "Team" and "Group" ministries.

There are over 1,350 clergy serving in Teams with more than one church building and/or worship centre. By definition in church law, these team members are obliged to function collaboratively with all the ordained colleagues in their Team. Perhaps surprising, in a survey of over 2,500 clergy almost three-quarters indicated that they had very little formal training in working closely with ordained colleagues. Moreover, they did not express any great willingness to undergo further in-service training on working more closely with their ordained colleagues.

According to responses from Continuing Ministerial Education ("CME") Officers in the forty-four dioceses making up the Church of England there is a minimal effort and expenditure of time and money on training in peer collaboration among clergy in Teams and Groups. This is in stark contrast to the very high degree that clergy rate working closely with laity, as would be expected in a parochially oriented church.

Generally, Church of England clergy see their aim as building up the body of Christ (Ephesians 4:12). They also regard themselves as concerned about the things of God (NE). Underlying such views are the thought processes each cleric uses to organise information -- theological and otherwise.

Knowing the manner by which concepts and ideas are thought can enable more appropriate responses in given situations, since perception precedes performance and cognitive style provides the structure for framing feelings and behaviour. Church of England clergy seem no more aware than anyone else in the population at large as to how they think, their cognitive style, or the way they take in and use information. This is the case, for instance, when deploying Church of England clergy, especially in Teams and Groups.

Dr. Richard Riding, a Chartered Psychologist at the University of Birmingham, maintains that the way people think is linked to using certain parts of the brain rather than other parts and that it is an innate characteristic. That is to say, the way a person thinks reflects a fundamental style or pattern by which experiences are assimilated and used to formulate attitudes, behaviour, and feelings.

Wholist and Analytic Cognitive Styles

One of two fundamental cognitive style dimensions refers to whether or not information is understood in whole or parts. Such a differentiation is as old as Greek philosophy in which Plato emphasized the universal in the Ideal, whereas his student Aristotle stressed the particular in everyday observances.

Some people tend to see the proverbial wood before the trees, and they have been termed as Wholist. Taking in the big picture means that often distinctions are blurred as unimportant, so for instance hard and soft woods are regarded simply as timber; yet anyone who works with wood making - say fine furniture - would favour perhaps maple or oak over plywood or chipboard.

Other people start with detail from which they then construct a wider view. In the language of educational psychologists, a person who sees the proverbial trees in the wood is described as having an Analytic cognitive style. Because they are very good at going right to the heart of a matter, sometimes they have a distorted and/or unbalanced view in relation to surrounding material, e.g., the steward concerned about deck chairs being in neat rows on the Titanic.

Both ways of thinking illustrated briefly above are connected on a continuum with a similar portion of the population at neither one end nor the other, and this in between style is known as Intermediate. According to Riding, there is a uniform spread right across the entire range of a continuum, with testing that shows broadly as many people with a Wholist as with an Analytic and as with an Intermediate cognitive style.

Findings based on a Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) computer assessment of more than 2% of Church of England clergy do not reflect this general pattern of thirds. Instead, some 14% seem to take in information as a whole, whereas 58% tend to see situations as a collection of parts and often focus on a few aspects at a time to the exclusion of other elements. Those with an Intermediate cognitive style between either extreme are somewhat less represented at 28% of those tested.

Again according to Riding, Analytics can quickly perceive similarities and differences in a situation; however, this also means that they can readily lose the proverbial wood for the trees by distorting one aspect in relation to the whole. In both learning and communicating to other people with this cognitive style Analytics tend to be structured, organised, and systematic. In a team role the Analytic type tends to function as a problem solver with a particular concern for feasibility and practicability in terms of available resources; however, there is a preference towards organising oneself rather than being organised by others.

At the other end of the continuum, those clergy with a Wholist cognitive style normally maintain an overall perspective in a team situation, often offering a balanced and refined view of plans in order to achieve goals. There is frequently a sensitivity to wider implications, placing group actions in a larger and perhaps theological context.

Verbal and Imagery Cognitive Styles

There is one other principle dimension to the way people think, and that is how they represent information taken in -- either in whole or in parts -- by words or pictures. Those who are Verbal often tend to learn better by reading instructions, whereas Imagers more readily follow pictorial directions.

Riding has found that Verbalisers focus their thoughts in words externally to others in stimulating conversation, whereas Imagers are more passive in social and work relationships, preferring a more fixed/stable environment. The former readily mix with people, whereas the later tend to view themselves set apart from others. Verbalisers appear to be more extroverted with Imagers being more introverted, but such a basic way of representing information does not seem to correlate significantly with the characteristic Introverted Myers Briggs personality/psychological type for clergy and the results described below.

Interestingly, those clergy who have undertaken the Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) computer assessment more or less mirrored the general population with 34% scoring as Verbalisers, 32% as Imagers, and 34% in between as Bimodals. It would appear that selection, training, and deployment of clergy in the Church of England is non-discriminating in terms of how people represent information they have taken in. It accords with the national church in England being the Via Media, signified in its public buildings by font/altar, pulpit, and lectern.

Although not specifically within the scope of this study, it would be expected that Protestant Reformed Churches with a more exclusive emphasis on preaching the Word of God might in fact select, train, and deploy more clergy who were Verbalisers than Imagers. That is to say, those with a natural ability to articulate the Gospel would be well received in a church where clarity of expression from the pulpit was singularly valued.

In the study undertaken in the late 1990’s, 24% of Church of England clergy have an Analytic/Verbal style. The next most frequently encountered style found is Analytic/Imager among 22% of those tested. Those with an Analytic/Bimodal style were also significantly represented by 18% of those undertaking the CSA. Overall less than 1% were Wholist/Verbalisers compared with 11% in the general population.

If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail. (Bernard M. Baruch)

If cognitive style is understood as a tool, the question of right or wrong does not arise, as every tool is more or less useful in some situations than others. For instance, spanners are better with nuts than hammers, and similarly nails are driven home without any ado with a properly sized hammer. What is important is to have a whole range of tools available rather than a variety of only one sort. This metaphor holds as much for cognitive styles, the ways people process information, as it does for mechanical implements.

In Church of England parishes based on one parson, one parish church, and one congregation there is every likelihood that a range of cognitive styles is reflected in those making up the Church Council's Standing Committee: Vicar, Churchwardens, Secretary, and Treasurer; however, in Team and Group Ministries there are "chapters" of like manner thinking -- not necessarily like minded -- members who often have blind spots in terms of processing information, due to their probably not readily seeing the wood for the trees. Use of the CSA computer assessment in Teams and Groups indicates that a breadth of cognitive styles corresponds with a satisfactory and supportive situation with significantly less stress than experienced in circumstances where styles are similar.

Good collaboration consists of communication, commitment, and creativity along with complementary (not competitive) cognitive styles. Currently clergy in the Church of England are selected, trained, and deployed in such a way that there are almost twice the number who think in detailed parts than in wholes. This means that without using something like the CSA, at the moment the odds are a third of the clergy obliged to work together are more than twice as likely to be alongside someone ordained with a similar Analytic style: perhaps too many hammers and not enough spanners!

Alternatively, too many analytics in a team are not unlike three blind people all attempting to describe an elephant to one another from different ends. They don't necessarily fall out. Still, one feels the bulk as solid as a wall; another finds the tail as flexible as a piece of rope; and the third fixes on the tree likeness of a leg. Such a situation is perhaps more appropriate to yesterday's parochial church than tomorrow's corporate/ collaborative church.

In November 1993 the General Synod passed further legislation on Teams and Group Ministries. On the assumption that there is no real going back to a time when clergy were virtually on their own, there are at least two ways forward. One concerns those already deployed, and the other those still to be selected and trained for future deployment in the twenty-first century when the institutional national church will need to be financially self sufficient and more responsive than ever to the context of a multi-cultural and pluralistic society.

Cognitive Strategy

Although awareness of cognitive style and use of the CSA as such could not possibly insure harmonious and collegial working relationships, increased understanding of who one is and how others are likely to see one's self, can serve to limit an "arc of distortion" and misunderstanding. This will not in itself bring in the Kingdom of God, but it just might remove a hidden barrier to collaboration and solidarity in Christian fellowship (koinonia).

It is also possible to develop ways that make the most of in-built natural ways to process and represent information. This is perhaps seen unconsciously, for instance, in the increased use of overhead projectors during sermons, so that Verbalisers, Bimodals, and Imagers -- all may respond to the mighty works of God.

In Teams and Groups an increased awareness of cognitive styles can lead to task differentiation more closely aligned to strengths than limitations. This has been found to be readily recognised in clergy Teams where a mix of cognitive styles already exists; however, it has also been discovered in clergy Teams with a predominant Analytic cognitive style that extra effort is required to cope with the frustration of too many hammers for too few nails. In such a situation the addition of a further member with a complementary cognitive style, e.g., Wholist, has enhanced the degree of collaboration possible. That is to say, a dreamer of dreams (Joel) needs to collaborate with someone who can think through implementing detail (Paul) - cf. I Cor 12:4f.

Nationally, the Church of England looks to its Advisory Board for Ministry ("ABM") to develop selection criteria for the ordained ministry into the next millennium. Currently, ABM is considering personnel assessment procedures used in other professions, and the then ABM Chief Secretary has himself undertaken the CSA, for which I am most grateful.

It seems that current interview based selection has produced many more ordinands with an Analytic cognitive style than others over the full range. This could limit collaborative capacities in the increasing number of Team and Group Ministries being created, so perhaps ABM may in time offer the insights of cognitive styles and the CSA assessment as one among a number of facilitating instruments in the selection, training, and deployment of Church of England clergy. Both Post Ordination Training ("POT") and CME especially for Teams and Groups would then be able to build on this aspect of cognitive styles and collaboration among clergy so that those with the appropriate tools will be equipped for every good work (2 Timothy 3:17).

(Note: Originally I published this article on cognitive styles and team development in the BRITISH JOURNAL OF THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION, Volume 7, Number 1, Spring 1995.)

Riding, RJ, (1991), Personal Style Awareness and Personal Development, Birmingham. Learning & Training Technology; also, (1994), Cognitive Style Analysis, Birmingham, Learning & Training Technology.

Summary

Checking our bearings is not quite as simple as reading a direction off a compass or knowing our right hand from our left; however, being aware of the collective Christian Faith style can provide a reference point or chart on which can be plotted a course of action, such as a stewardship programme. Also, knowing one's own cognitive style can enable more effective communication by compensating for the fact that some people are better able to receive and respond to images than words and/or detail rather than big ideas. All this together can enhance collaboration in and through the local church.

Canon Jim Pendorf
Ipswich, 2004